Older adults may experience achlorhydria related to which of the following?

Achlorhydria, the condition characterized by the absence of hydrochloric acid in the gastric secretions, can be related to several underlying factors in older adults. Each of the conditions listed contributes to the occurrence of achlorhydria.

A history of chronic Helicobacter pylori infection is significant because this bacterium can damage the gastric mucosa, leading to atrophic gastritis. In this condition, the stomach lining deteriorates, which reduces acid production and can result in achlorhydria.

Chronic use of proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) is also a well-documented cause of achlorhydria. These medications work by significantly reducing gastric acid secretion, which, when used over an extended period, can lead to a state where very little to no gastric acid is produced.

Moreover, autoimmune conditions, such as autoimmune gastritis, can impair the function of the stomach lining and the parietal cells that produce hydrochloric acid. These conditions can also lead to significant reduction or absence of acid production.

Given that each of these factors—chronic H. pylori infection, long-term PPI use, and certain autoimmune conditions—can individually lead to achlorhydria, the correct response signifies that the presence of any of these factors,